Personnel Psychology Careers: Salary, Job Outlook & Requirements 2025
Personnel psychology is a specialization within industrial-organizational (I-O) psychology focused on employee recruitment, selection, training, and performance management. The term "personnel psychology" is used less frequently today, with most professionals identified as I-O psychologists even when working primarily in personnel functions. Personnel psychologists earn a median salary of $147,420 annually according to the Bureau of Labor Statistics (2023 data). Most positions require a master's degree, though doctoral degrees open more opportunities.
Today's workplace is fundamentally different from previous generations. Modern organizations face complex challenges in building and maintaining effective teams, managing diverse workforces, and creating positive work environments. Personnel psychologists help companies navigate these challenges by applying psychological principles to hiring, training, employee development, and organizational culture.
Personnel psychology addresses the human side of business operations. As a specialized field within industrial-organizational psychology, it focuses specifically on managing the employee lifecycle from recruitment through retention. While the term "personnel psychology" is less commonly used today, the field's core functions remain essential to organizational success.
Table of Contents
What is Personnel Psychology?
Personnel psychology is a branch of industrial-organizational (I-O) psychology that concentrates on the psychological aspects of employment. This field encompasses recruitment, selection, training, performance evaluation, and employee retention. Personnel psychologists work directly with organizations to ensure the right people are hired for the right positions and that employees remain engaged and productive throughout their careers.
Important terminology note: While "personnel psychology" accurately describes this area of practice, the term is used less frequently in contemporary professional contexts. Most practitioners today identify as industrial-organizational psychologists or organizational consultants, even when their work focuses primarily on personnel functions such as hiring and employee assessment. This shift reflects the field's evolution and integration of personnel activities within broader organizational psychology frameworks.
The Bureau of Labor Statistics classifies personnel psychologists under industrial-organizational psychologists (SOC code 19-3032). This classification reflects the field's close relationship with broader organizational psychology practices. While some professionals use the title "personnel psychologist," many work as I-O psychologists, human resources consultants, or organizational development specialists.
Core Responsibilities
Personnel psychologists apply psychological research and methods to workplace challenges. Their responsibilities typically include:
- Designing and implementing employee selection systems
- Developing assessment tools to evaluate candidate qualifications
- Creating training programs tailored to organizational needs
- Conducting job analyses to define role requirements
- Measuring employee performance and providing feedback systems
- Analyzing workplace dynamics and team effectiveness
- Advising management on personnel policies and procedures
- Addressing employee relations issues and workplace conflicts
Personnel Psychology vs. Industrial-Organizational Psychology
| Aspect | Personnel Psychology | Industrial-Organizational Psychology |
|---|---|---|
| Primary Focus | Individual employees and personnel management | Both individual and organizational systems |
| Key Activities | Hiring, training, performance evaluation, retention | Plus organizational development, leadership, workplace culture |
| Typical Role | HR consultant, talent acquisition specialist | Organizational consultant, research scientist, professor |
| BLS Classification | 19-3032 (I-O Psychologists) | 19-3032 (I-O Psychologists) |
Personnel Psychology Salary & Job Outlook
Personnel psychologists, classified by the Bureau of Labor Statistics as industrial-organizational psychologists, earn competitive salaries that reflect their specialized expertise. Salary levels vary significantly based on education, experience, industry, and geographic location.
National Salary Data (2023)
According to May 2023 BLS data, industrial-organizational psychologists earn:
| Percentile | Annual Salary | Hourly Wage |
|---|---|---|
| 10th Percentile | $45,860 | $22.05 |
| 25th Percentile | $90,100 | $43.32 |
| 50th Percentile (Median) | $147,420 | $70.87 |
| 75th Percentile | $219,410 | $105.48 |
| 90th Percentile | $219,810 | $105.68 |
The mean annual wage for I-O psychologists is $154,380, with significant variation based on industry and specialization. Entry-level positions typically start around $45,000-$60,000 annually, while experienced professionals with doctoral degrees and consulting practices can earn well over $200,000.
Note on salary data sources: This article relies primarily on Bureau of Labor Statistics data, which represents verified employment statistics collected from employers across all industries. Salary information from aggregator websites and self-reported platforms may differ from BLS figures as those sources often include self-reported data that hasn't been independently verified. For the most reliable salary expectations, consult official BLS reports and industry surveys from professional organizations like SIOP.
Salary by Industry
Personnel psychologists work across diverse industries, each offering different compensation levels. The highest-paying sectors include:
| Industry | Annual Mean Wage | Employment Level |
|---|---|---|
| Management, Scientific & Technical Consulting | $169,890 | 470 professionals |
| Local Government (excluding schools/hospitals) | $164,850 | 50 professionals |
| Management of Companies & Enterprises | $127,950 | 50 professionals |
| State Government (excluding schools/hospitals) | $96,030 | 60 professionals |
| Colleges, Universities & Professional Schools | $93,490 | 40 professionals |
Management consulting represents the largest employment sector for personnel psychologists, offering both high salaries and numerous opportunities. Private consulting firms typically pay premium rates for experienced professionals who can demonstrate measurable impact on organizational performance.
Geographic Salary Variations
Location significantly impacts earning potential. California employs the highest number of I-O psychologists (240 professionals) with an annual mean wage of $136,300. North Carolina, the second-highest employment state, reports an annual mean wage of $86,400 for approximately 40 professionals.
Job Outlook & Growth Projections
Employment of psychologists overall is projected to grow 6% from 2024 to 2034, faster than the average for all occupations. Based on BLS projections for industrial-organizational psychologists (SOC 19-3032, 2023–2033), growth is projected at approximately 5.8% through 2033, translating to an estimated 500 new positions opening during this period.
Several factors drive demand for personnel psychology expertise:
- Organizations recognizing the link between employee satisfaction and productivity
- Increased focus on diversity, equity, and inclusion initiatives
- Growing complexity of workplace regulations and compliance
- Remote and hybrid work arrangements requiring new management approaches
- Data-driven decision-making in human resources
- Rising emphasis on employee mental health and wellbeing
While the field remains relatively small with approximately 1,000–1,100 professionals in the U.S. as of 2023 (BLS data for SOC 19-3032), competition for positions can be intense. Candidates with strong quantitative skills, programming abilities, and practical experience typically have the most success securing positions.
Educational Requirements & Pathways
Personnel psychologists need substantial education and training to develop the expertise required for this specialized field. While entry points exist at various degree levels, most professionals hold at least a master's degree, and many pursue doctoral training.
Educational Pathways Overview
| Degree Level | Duration | Career Opportunities | Typical Salary Range |
|---|---|---|---|
| Bachelor's Degree | 4 years | HR assistant, research assistant, entry-level roles | $40,000-$55,000 |
| Master's Degree | 6-7 years total | Personnel psychologist, I-O consultant, HR manager | $70,000-$150,000 |
| Doctoral Degree (PhD/PsyD) | 9-12 years total | Senior consultant, researcher, professor, private practice | $100,000-$220,000+ |
Bachelor's Degree in Psychology or Related Fields
A bachelor's degree in psychology, human resources, business, or a related social science provides foundational knowledge but limits independent practice opportunities. With only an undergraduate degree, graduates typically work as:
- Human resources assistants or coordinators
- Research assistants in psychology departments or consulting firms
- Training and development coordinators
- Recruitment specialists
Bachelor's-level professionals work under supervision of licensed psychologists or experienced HR professionals. They cannot provide psychological assessments independently or use the title "psychologist" in most jurisdictions. However, an undergraduate degree serves as the essential foundation for graduate study in I-O psychology.
Master's Degree in Industrial-Organizational Psychology
A master's degree represents the minimum credential for most personnel psychology positions. Master's programs typically require two years of full-time study beyond the bachelor's degree and include:
- Advanced statistics and research methods
- Employee selection and assessment
- Training and development psychology
- Organizational theory and behavior
- Job analysis and performance evaluation
- Leadership and team dynamics
- Applied research project or thesis
- Practical internship experience
Programs accredited by or aligned with the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology (SIOP) guidelines provide the strongest preparation. Master's graduates can work independently in consulting, corporate, or government settings, though some advanced positions and academic roles require doctoral training.
Doctoral Degree (PhD or PsyD)
A doctoral degree opens the widest range of career opportunities, including university faculty positions, senior consulting roles, and leadership in organizational development. PhD programs emphasize research and typically require 4-6 years beyond the master's degree, including:
- Advanced coursework in specialized topics
- Comprehensive examinations
- Original dissertation research
- Teaching experience
- Professional presentations and publications
- Extended supervised practice
PsyD programs focus more on applied practice than research, though both degrees qualify graduates for the full range of personnel psychology roles. Doctoral training enables professionals to conduct independent research, supervise others, and command premium consulting rates.
Important Considerations for Program Selection
When choosing a psychology degree program, consider:
- SIOP Guidelines: Look for programs that follow Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology standards
- Accreditation: Ensure institutional and program-level accreditation
- Faculty Expertise: Research faculty publications and industry connections
- Practicum Opportunities: Seek programs with strong industry partnerships
- Statistical Training: Modern personnel psychology requires advanced data analysis skills
- Career Outcomes: Review graduate employment data and typical first positions
Career Paths & Progression
Personnel psychologists follow diverse career trajectories depending on their education, interests, and industry focus. Career progression typically involves increasing responsibility, specialization, and compensation over time.
Entry-Level Positions (0-3 Years Experience)
Recent master's graduates typically begin in roles such as:
- Junior I-O Psychologist: Conducting job analyses, assisting with employee selection processes, and supporting senior consultants on client projects
- HR Analyst: Using psychological principles to analyze workforce data, identify trends, and make recommendations to management
- Assessment Specialist: Administering and interpreting employment tests, developing selection tools, and ensuring assessment validity
- Training Coordinator: Designing and delivering employee training programs based on learning psychology principles
Entry-level salaries typically range from $50,000-$75,000 annually, varying by location and organization size.
Mid-Career Positions (3-7 Years Experience)
With experience, personnel psychologists advance to roles with greater autonomy and impact:
- Senior I-O Psychologist: Leading client projects, developing assessment systems, and mentoring junior staff
- Organizational Development Consultant: Advising on culture change, leadership development, and organizational effectiveness
- Talent Management Director: Overseeing recruitment, selection, development, and retention strategies for entire organizations
- Research Scientist: Conducting applied research on workplace issues and publishing findings in professional journals or partnering with psychometricians to create pre-employment assessments, personality inventories, and job analysis tools that predict employee performance and improve organizational outcomes
Mid-career professionals typically earn $90,000-$150,000 annually, with variation based on role complexity and organizational resources.
Senior-Level Positions (7+ Years Experience)
Experienced personnel psychologists often reach senior leadership or specialized expert roles:
- Principal Consultant: Leading consulting practice areas, developing client relationships, and directing major organizational initiatives
- Chief Human Resources Officer (CHRO): Providing executive leadership for all human resources functions using psychological principles
- University Professor: Teaching I-O psychology courses, conducting research, and training the next generation of professionals
- Private Practice Owner: Operating independent consulting practice serving multiple clients and specializing in specific industries
Senior professionals with doctoral degrees and established reputations can earn $150,000-$220,000+ annually. Those running successful consulting practices or holding executive positions may exceed these figures significantly.
Specialization Options
Personnel psychologists often develop expertise in specific areas:
- Employee selection and assessment
- Leadership development and executive coaching
- Training design and evaluation
- Performance management systems
- Diversity, equity, and inclusion initiatives
- Employee engagement and retention
- Organizational culture and change management
- Workplace safety and wellbeing
A Day in the Life of a Personnel Psychologist
The daily responsibilities of personnel psychologists vary considerably based on their specific role, industry, and organization type. However, most professionals share common activities and challenges.
Typical Daily Activities
A personnel psychologist working for a mid-sized consulting firm might experience a day like this:
Morning (8:00 AM - 12:00 PM): Review assessment data from a client's recent hiring process, analyzing test scores and interview ratings to identify top candidates. Meet with the client's HR director via video conference to discuss findings and recommendations. Begin drafting a validation study report demonstrating the assessment system's effectiveness and legal defensibility.
Afternoon (1:00 PM - 5:00 PM): Conduct job analysis interviews with employees and supervisors at a healthcare organization, gathering information to develop new performance evaluation criteria. Collaborate with team members on designing a training needs assessment survey. Review research literature on remote work productivity to inform recommendations for a technology client.
Additional Responsibilities: Personnel psychologists regularly attend professional development workshops, stay current with employment law changes, respond to client emails and questions, and participate in business development activities to maintain a strong client base.
Work Environment Characteristics
Personnel psychologists work in diverse settings including:
- Consulting Firms: Fast-paced environment with multiple simultaneous clients, frequent travel, and project-based work
- Corporate HR Departments: Stable environment focused on single organization, regular schedule, deep organizational knowledge
- Government Agencies: Structured environment with defined procedures, work-life balance, focus on public sector needs
- Academic Institutions: Teaching and research emphasis, academic calendar schedule, opportunity to train future professionals
- Private Practice: Flexibility and autonomy, client relationship management, income variability
Challenges and Rewards
Personnel psychologists face various challenges including tight project deadlines, resistance to change from organizational stakeholders, and the need to balance scientific rigor with business practicality. Economic downturns can affect demand for consulting services, and maintaining work-life balance can prove difficult during busy periods.
However, the field offers significant rewards. Personnel psychologists see direct impact from their work when organizations improve hiring success rates, reduce turnover, or enhance employee satisfaction. The intellectual challenge of solving complex human problems, the variety of projects and clients, and the competitive compensation make this career appealing to many psychology graduates.
How to Get Started in Personnel Psychology
Breaking into personnel psychology requires strategic planning and deliberate skill development. Follow these steps to build a successful career in this field.
Step 1: Build a Strong Academic Foundation
Begin with a bachelor's degree in psychology, focusing on coursework that develops analytical and research skills. Take classes in statistics, research methods, organizational behavior, and human resources management. Maintain a strong GPA (typically 3.5+) to maximize graduate school opportunities.
Consider psychology internships or research assistant positions during undergraduate studies to gain practical experience and clarify career interests. Many students also benefit from coursework in business, computer science, or data analytics to develop complementary skills.
Step 2: Gain Relevant Experience
Before or during graduate school, seek experiences that demonstrate your commitment to the field:
- Work or volunteer in human resources departments
- Participate in research projects examining workplace issues
- Complete internships with I-O psychology consulting firms
- Join student chapters of professional organizations
- Attend conferences and networking events
- Develop skills in statistical software (SPSS, R, SAS)
Step 3: Pursue Graduate Education
Apply to master's or doctoral programs in industrial-organizational psychology. Research programs carefully, considering factors such as:
- Faculty research interests and industry connections
- Curriculum alignment with career goals
- Practicum and internship opportunities
- Program size and cohort model
- Funding availability (assistantships, fellowships)
- Graduate placement rates and typical first positions
Most competitive applicants have GRE scores above the 75th percentile, strong letters of recommendation from psychology professors, and a clear statement of purpose explaining their career objectives.
Step 4: Develop Professional Credentials
During and after graduate school, build your professional identity:
- Join the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology (SIOP), which is Division 14 of the American Psychological Association
- Attend annual SIOP conferences to network with professionals and stay current with research
- Consider membership in related organizations like the Academy of Management or Society for Human Resource Management
- Pursue relevant certifications through professional HR organizations
- Develop a portfolio of projects and accomplishments
- Build a professional online presence (LinkedIn, professional website)
- Seek mentorship from experienced practitioners
Step 5: Launch Your Career
As you near degree completion, actively pursue employment opportunities:
- Leverage your practicum and internship connections
- Attend career fairs and recruitment events
- Apply for positions through SIOP job listings and company websites
- Prepare to demonstrate your statistical and analytical capabilities
- Be open to relocating for strong opportunities
- Consider both consulting and corporate pathways
Certifications & Licensing
Unlike clinical psychology, personnel psychology typically doesn't require state licensure because practitioners don't provide therapeutic services. However, certification and professional credentials can enhance credibility and career opportunities.
Professional Licensure
Licensure requirements for personnel psychologists vary significantly by state and the specific nature of the work performed. Most personnel psychology positions focused on organizational consulting and human resources don't require clinical licensure because practitioners don't provide therapeutic services. However, important exceptions exist:
When licensure may be required:
- Using the protected title "psychologist" in states with title protection laws
- Providing individual coaching or assessment services that fall under psychology practice acts
- Working in certain government or healthcare settings with licensure mandates
- Offering services that your state defines as "psychological practice"
State laws vary considerably regarding title protection and scope of practice. Some states strictly regulate who can use the term "psychologist," while others focus primarily on clinical and counseling services. Before practicing, research your state's psychology licensing board requirements to ensure compliance. Even in non-clinical organizational contexts, calling yourself a "psychologist" without proper licensure can violate state law in jurisdictions with title protection statutes.
Professionals who pursue licensure typically do so because they:
- Want maximum flexibility in career options across state lines
- Plan to provide individual consulting or coaching services
- Seek the professional credential and recognition
- Work in regulated industries requiring licensed professionals
Standard licensure requirements include a doctoral degree, 1,500-3,000 hours of supervised experience (varying by state), and passing the Examination for Professional Practice in Psychology (EPPP). Some states also require jurisprudence examinations covering state-specific laws and regulations.
Professional Certifications
Several certifications and professional memberships add credibility for personnel psychologists:
Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology (SIOP): SIOP, also known as APA Division 14 of the American Psychological Association, represents the primary professional organization for I-O psychology professionals. While SIOP doesn't offer formal certification, membership demonstrates commitment to the field and provides access to extensive networking and professional development resources. The organization publishes leading research journals, hosts annual conferences, and maintains graduate program guidelines that shape education in the field.
HR Certifications: Many personnel psychologists pursue human resources certifications to complement their psychology training:
- Professional in Human Resources (PHR): Entry to mid-level HR credential from HRCI
- Senior Professional in Human Resources (SPHR): Strategic HR credential for experienced professionals
- SHRM Certified Professional (SHRM-CP): HR generalist credential from Society for Human Resource Management
- SHRM Senior Certified Professional (SHRM-SCP): Strategic HR leadership credential
Board Certification: The American Board of Professional Psychology (ABPP) offers board certification in organizational and business consulting psychology for doctoral-level professionals. This credential requires extensive experience, peer review, and passing a rigorous examination.
Continuing Education
Whether licensed or certified, personnel psychologists should engage in ongoing professional development to stay current with:
- Advances in assessment technology and methods
- Changes in employment law and regulations
- Emerging research on workplace effectiveness
- New statistical and analytical techniques
- Evolving workplace trends (remote work, AI, automation)
SIOP, American Psychological Association (APA), and various HR organizations offer continuing education through conferences, webinars, workshops, and online courses.
Frequently Asked Questions
What's the difference between personnel psychology and industrial-organizational psychology?
Personnel psychology is actually a specialized area within industrial-organizational (I-O) psychology. Personnel psychology focuses specifically on employee-related functions like hiring, training, and performance evaluation. I-O psychology encompasses these areas plus broader organizational concerns like leadership, culture, and organizational development. The Bureau of Labor Statistics classifies both under the same occupational code (19-3032), and most modern professionals use the term "industrial-organizational psychologist" rather than "personnel psychologist."
How much do personnel psychologists make?
According to May 2023 Bureau of Labor Statistics data, the median annual salary for industrial-organizational psychologists (which includes personnel psychologists) is $147,420. Entry-level positions typically start around $45,000-$60,000, while experienced professionals with doctoral degrees can earn $200,000 or more. Salary varies significantly based on education level, experience, industry, and geographic location. Management consulting firms typically offer the highest compensation.
Do I need a license to work as a personnel psychologist?
Most personnel psychology positions focused on organizational consulting and human resources don't require clinical licensure. A master's degree in industrial-organizational psychology is typically sufficient for entry into the field. However, licensure may be required if you plan to use the protected title "psychologist" in states with title protection laws, provide individual coaching or assessment services that fall under psychology practice acts, or work in certain regulated settings. State laws vary considerably, so research your specific state's psychology licensing board requirements before practicing. Licensure typically requires a doctoral degree, supervised experience, and passing the EPPP examination.
What degree do I need to become a personnel psychologist?
A master's degree in industrial-organizational psychology is the typical minimum requirement for independent practice as a personnel psychologist. The degree usually takes 2 years beyond a bachelor's degree and includes coursework in employee selection, training, performance management, and statistics. A bachelor's degree in psychology or a related field allows you to work in entry-level HR roles or as a research assistant, but limits independent practice. A doctoral degree (PhD or PsyD) opens the widest range of opportunities, including senior consulting, academic positions, and research roles.
What companies hire personnel psychologists?
Personnel psychologists work across many industries and organization types. The largest employer is the management and technical consulting sector, which employs about 470 I-O psychologists nationwide. Other major employers include government agencies (federal, state, and local), large corporations with internal organizational development departments, universities and research institutions, and private consulting firms specializing in HR services. Technology companies, healthcare organizations, financial services firms, and manufacturing companies also frequently hire personnel psychologists.
Can personnel psychologists work remotely?
Yes, many personnel psychology positions offer remote or hybrid work arrangements, particularly since the COVID-19 pandemic. Consultants often work with clients virtually, conducting assessments, analyzing data, and providing recommendations through video conferencing and collaborative software. However, some aspects of the job may require onsite presence, such as conducting in-person interviews, facilitating training sessions, or observing workplace operations. The amount of remote work available varies by employer and specific role.
How long does it take to become a personnel psychologist?
The timeline varies based on your educational path. With a master's degree (the typical minimum requirement), expect 6-7 years total: 4 years for a bachelor's degree plus 2-3 years for a master's degree. If you pursue a doctoral degree, the timeline extends to 9-12 years total: 4 years for bachelor's, 2-3 years for master's, and 4-6 years for doctorate. Some combined programs allow students to move directly from bachelor's to doctorate, potentially reducing overall time. Part-time study extends these timelines but allows you to work while earning your degree.
What's the job outlook for personnel psychologists?
Employment of psychologists overall is projected to grow 6% from 2024 to 2034, faster than the average for all occupations. Based on BLS projections for industrial-organizational psychologists (SOC 19-3032), growth is projected at approximately 5.8% through 2033. While these percentages indicate solid growth, the field remains relatively small with approximately 1,000–1,100 professionals nationwide as of 2023, so competition for positions can be intense. Candidates with strong quantitative skills, programming abilities, and practical experience typically have the best prospects. Demand continues to grow as organizations recognize the value of evidence-based approaches to human resources management.
Do I need a PhD to be a personnel psychologist?
No, you don't need a PhD to work as a personnel psychologist. A master's degree in industrial-organizational psychology is sufficient for most positions, including consulting roles and corporate positions. However, a PhD or PsyD opens additional opportunities, particularly in academia, senior consulting, research positions, and leadership roles. Doctoral training also typically commands higher salaries and greater professional autonomy. Consider your career goals when deciding whether to pursue doctoral education. If you're primarily interested in applied practice, a master's degree may be sufficient. If you're interested in research or academic careers, a doctorate is typically necessary.
What skills do personnel psychologists need?
Successful personnel psychologists need both technical and interpersonal skills. Technical skills include proficiency in statistics and data analysis, research methodology, test development and validation, and familiarity with statistical software like SPSS, R, or SAS. Interpersonal skills include excellent communication abilities for presenting findings to non-technical audiences, strong consulting and client management capabilities, ability to build relationships with diverse stakeholders, and comfort with ambiguity and changing priorities. Business acumen, understanding of employment law, and project management abilities are also valuable. Many employers increasingly seek candidates with programming skills in Python or similar languages.
Key Takeaways
- Personnel psychology is a specialized branch of industrial-organizational psychology focused on employee recruitment, selection, training, performance management, and retention. The term is used less frequently today, with most professionals identified as I-O psychologists.
- The median salary for industrial-organizational psychologists is $147,420 annually (BLS 2023 data), with significant variation based on education, experience, and industry. Management consulting offers the highest compensation at approximately $169,890 annually.
- A master's degree in I-O psychology is the typical minimum requirement for independent practice, though doctoral degrees open additional opportunities in research, academia, and senior leadership. Bachelor's degrees limit professionals to entry-level or supervised roles.
- Based on BLS projections (SOC 19-3032, 2023–2033), the field is projected to grow 5.8% through 2033, with approximately 500 new positions expected. The field remains small with 1,000–1,100 professionals nationwide, making competition intense.
- Most personnel psychology positions don't require state licensure since the work focuses on organizational applications. However, using the title "psychologist" may require licensure in states with title protection laws.
- Career progression typically moves from entry-level analyst or junior consultant roles ($50,000-$75,000) to mid-career project leadership positions ($90,000-$150,000) to senior-level consulting, executive, or academic roles ($150,000-$220,000+).
Ready to Explore Psychology Careers?
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2024 US Bureau of Labor Statistics salary figures and job growth projections for Industrial-Organizational Psychologists are based on national data, not school-specific information. Conditions in your area may vary. Data accessed October 2025.